# References — the evidence layer

The single home for citations. Laws in `laws.md` / `provenance.md` cite these by **key**; the DOI lives here, once. Every DOI below was **verified against Crossref** (title, first author, year confirmed) on 2026-09-04. Books without a DOI are marked. `F§` refs point into ACRLDS `docs/foundation/00_FOUNDATION.md`, which names the framework per principle; these citations supply the primary literature that foundation stops short of citing.

Three grounding types are used across the laws:

- **`literature`** — the guardrail rests on a research finding; keys below.
- **`convention`** — a house delivery/engineering rule for consistency or buildability; **no theory claim** (and none should be implied).
- **`grounding-discipline`** — an epistemic/provenance rule (the `R-GND-*` family); it makes claims auditable, it is not itself a pedagogy finding.
- **`content-grounded`** — the *content* the law pulls is itself KG-cited per row (`source_citation` + `source_url` + `evidence_strength`), enforced by `R-GND-01/05`.

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## Cognitive Load Theory (working memory is finite → manage load)

- **`Sweller1988`** — Sweller, J. (1988). *Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning.* Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4 ✓
- **`SweEtal1998`** — Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). *Cognitive architecture and instructional design.* Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022193728205 ✓
- **`SweKal2011`** — Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). *Cognitive Load Theory.* Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4 ✓ (book)

## Worked examples & self-explanation (before independent practice)

- **`SweCoop1985`** — Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). *The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra.* Cognition and Instruction, 2(1), 59–89. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3 ✓
- **`Chi1989`** — Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). *Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems.* Cognitive Science, 13(2), 145–182. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1302_1 ✓

## Multimedia design (split-attention, redundancy, coherence)

- **`Chandler1991`** — Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). *Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction.* Cognition and Instruction, 8(4), 293–332. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 ✓
- **`Mayer2001`** — Mayer, R. E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). *Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting more material results in less understanding.* Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.187 ✓
- **`Mayer2009`** — Mayer, R. E. (2009). *Multimedia Learning* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511811678 ✓ (book)

## Representations: concrete→abstract, multiple representations

- **`Bruner1966`** — Bruner, J. S. (1966). *Toward a Theory of Instruction.* Harvard University Press. (Enactive–Iconic–Symbolic; operationalised as CPA.) — no DOI (book)
- **`Fyfe2014`** — Fyfe, E. R., McNeil, N. M., Son, J. Y., & Goldstone, R. L. (2014). *Concreteness fading in mathematics and science instruction: A systematic review.* Educational Psychology Review, 26(1), 9–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9249-3 ✓
- **`Ainsworth2006`** — Ainsworth, S. (2006). *DeFT: A conceptual framework for considering learning with multiple representations.* Learning and Instruction, 16(3), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.03.001 ✓

## Variation (contrast against an invariant background)

- **`MartonPang2006`** — Marton, F., & Pang, M. F. (2006). *On some necessary conditions of learning.* Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15(2), 193–220. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1502_2 ✓

## Scaffolding & the zone of proximal development (support must withdraw)

- **`WBR1976`** — Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). *The role of tutoring in problem solving.* Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x ✓
- **`Vygotsky1978`** — Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). *Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.* Harvard University Press. — no DOI (book)

## Spacing, interleaving, retrieval practice (sequence & threading)

- **`Cepeda2006`** — Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). *Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.* Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 ✓
- **`Rohrer2007`** — Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2007). *The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning.* Instructional Science, 35(6), 481–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-007-9015-8 ✓
- **`Roediger2006`** — Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). *Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention.* Psychological Science, 17(3), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x ✓

## Conceptual change & misconceptions (surface, then resolve)

- **`Posner1982`** — Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). *Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change.* Science Education, 66(2), 211–227. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730660207 ✓

## Explore-before-explain (productive struggle)

- **`Kapur2008`** — Kapur, M. (2008). *Productive failure.* Cognition and Instruction, 26(3), 379–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370000802212669 ✓

## Feedback (redirects attention; targets the misconception)

- **`Hattie2007`** — Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). *The power of feedback.* Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487 ✓

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### Law → grounding map (quick index)

| Law | Type | Keys |
|---|---|---|
| R-BLU-03 CPA sequencing | literature | `Bruner1966`, `Fyfe2014`, `Ainsworth2006` · F§2.2 |
| R-BLU-04 scaffolding arc | literature | `WBR1976`, `Vygotsky1978` · F§2.6 |
| R-BLU-05 concept-prereq ordering | literature | `SweEtal1998` · F§2.3 |
| R-BLU-06 context coherence | literature | `MartonPang2006`, `Mayer2001` · F§2.4 |
| R-BLU-07 screen density | literature | `Sweller1988`, `Chandler1991`, `Mayer2001`, `Mayer2009` · F§2.3 |
| R-BLU-02 trope conformance (Trap/Twist) | literature | `Posner1982`, `Kapur2008` · F§5.3, F§9 |
| R-BLU-11 applet stage arc | literature | `Kapur2008`, `Chi1989` · F§6.2 |
| R-BLU-12 construction-grade (feedback) | literature + convention | `Hattie2007` · F§3.2, F§6.4 |
| R-BLU-13 difficulty cap / worked→practice | literature | `SweCoop1985`, `Chi1989` · F§5.4 |
| R-BLU-18/19 interaction-encodes / WHY-before-HOW | literature | `Kapur2008` · F§2.5, F§3.1 |
| R-CHP-02 progressive formalization | literature | `Fyfe2014` · F§8.1 |
| R-CHP-05 misconception discipline | literature + content-grounded | `Posner1982` · F§9 |
| R-CHP-08 journey atomicity | literature | `Sweller1988` · F§2.1 |
| R-CHP-10 practice threading | literature | `Cepeda2006`, `Rohrer2007`, `Roediger2006` · F§5.2 |
| R-CHP-15 formalization ceiling | literature | `SweEtal1998` · F§2.1 |
| R-CHP-01/03/06/07/09/11/12/13/14/16/17 | convention | house delivery/coverage rules — F§ where noted |
| R-BLU-01/08/09/10/14/15/16/17/20/21 | convention (+ content-grounded for 16) | F§5–7 where noted |
| R-GND-01…06 | grounding-discipline | provenance/verifiability — not a pedagogy claim |